Cold Environments - Working in the Cold
from Canadian Center of Health and Safety
What factors modify our response to cold?
A cold environment challenges the worker in three ways: by air temperature, air movement (wind speed), and humidity (wetness). In order to work safely, these challenges have to be counterbalanced by proper insulation (layered protective clothing), by physical activity and by controlled exposure to cold (work/rest schedule).
Air Temperature: Air temperature is measured by an ordinary thermometer in degrees Celsius (°C) or degrees Fahrenheit (°F).
Wind Speed: Different types of commercially-available anemometers are used to measure wind speed or air movement. These are calibrated in meters per second (m/s), kilometers per hour (km/h) or miles per hour (mph). Air movement is usually measured in m/s while wind speed is usually measured in km/h or mph. The following is a suggested guide for estimating wind speed if accurate information is not available:
8 km/h (5 mph): light flag moves,
16 km/h (10 mph): light flag fully extended,
24 km/h (15 mph): raises newspaper sheet,
32 km/h (20 mph): causes blowing and drifting snow.
Humidity (wetness): Water conducts heat away from the body 25 x faster then dry air.
Physical Activity: The production of body heat by physical activity (metabolic rate) is difficult to measure. However, tables are available in literature showing metabolic rates for a variety of activities. Metabolic heat production is measured in kilo calories (kcal) per hour. One kilocalorie is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by 1°C.
Work/rest schedule: Check Table 2 in this document, the "work warm-up schedule," as developed by the Saskatchewan Department of Labour. This work schedule has been adopted by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) as Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) for cold stress.
Protective clothing: Check section on "What should I know about personal protective equipment (PPE) for working in the cold?"
For information on the general effects of working in the cold as well as how the body adapts to cold, please see "Cold Environments - General"
For information on the health effects and first aid for cold exposures, please see "Cold Environments - Health Effects and First Aid"
What is the wind-chill temperature?
At any temperature, you feel colder as the wind speed increases. The combined effect of cold air and wind speed is expressed as "equivalent chill temperature" (ECT) or simply "wind chill" temperature in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit. It is essentially the air temperature that would feel the same on exposed human flesh as the given combination of air temperature and wind speed. It can be used as a general guideline for deciding clothing requirements and the possible health effects of cold.
In some parts of Canada the term "wind chill factor" is used. This is a measurement of a heat loss rate caused by exposure to wind and it is expressed as the rate of energy loss per unit area of exposed skin per second (e.g., joules/[second-metre2] or watts/metre2, W/m2).
Are there regulated exposure limits for working in cold environments?
In Canada, there are no maximum exposure limits for cold working environments. The "work warm-up schedule" developed by the Saskatchewan Department of Labour has been adopted by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) as Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) for cold stress.
What can be done to help prevent the adverse effects of cold?
For continuous work in temperatures below the freezing point, heated warming shelters such as tents, cabins or rest rooms should be available. The work should be paced to avoid excessive sweating. If such work is necessary, proper rest periods in a warm area should be allowed and employees should change into dry clothes. New employees should be given enough time to get acclimatized to cold and protective clothing before assuming a full work load.
The risk of cold injury can be minimized by proper equipment design, safe work practices and appropriate clothing. The following is a summary of actions including some from recommendations from the ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists).
Equipment Design
For work below the freezing point, metal handles and bars should be covered by thermal insulating material. Also, machines and tools should be designed so that they can be operated without having to remove mittens or gloves.
Surveillance and Monitoring
Every workplace where the temperature may fall below 16°C should be equipped with a suitable thermometer to monitor any further temperature changes. For colder workplaces with temperatures below the freezing point, the temperature should be monitored at least every 4 hours. For indoor workplaces, whenever the rate of air movement exceeds 2 meters per second (5 miles per hour) it should be recorded every 4 hours. In outdoor workplaces with air temperature below the freezing point, both air temperature and wind speed should be recorded.
Emergency Procedures
Procedures for providing first aid and obtaining medical care should be clearly outlined. For each shift, at least one trained person should be assigned the responsibility of attending to emergencies.
Education
Workers and supervisors involved with work in cold environments should be informed about symptoms of adverse effect exposure to cold, proper clothing habits, safe work practices, physical fitness requirements for work in cold, and emergency procedures in case of cold injury. While working in cold, a buddy system should be used. Look out for one another and be alert for the symptoms of hypothermia.
What should I know about personal protective equipment (PPE) for working in the cold?
Clothing
Protective clothing is needed for work at or below 4°C. Clothing should be selected to suit the temperature, weather conditions (e.g., wind speed, rain), the level and duration of activity, and job design. These factors are important to consider so that you can regulate the amount of heat and perspiration you generate while working. If the work pace is too fast or if the type and amount of clothing are not properly selected, excessive sweating may occur. The clothing next to body will become wet and the insulation value of the clothing will decrease dramatically. This increases the risk for cold injuries.
Clothing should be worn in multiple layers which provide better protection than a single thick garment. The air between layers of clothing provides better insulation than the clothing itself. Having several layers also gives you the option to open or remove a layer before you get too warm and start sweating or to add a layer when you take a break. It also allows you to accommodate changing temperatures and weather conditions. Successive outer layers should be larger than the inner layer, otherwise the outermost layer will compress the inner layers and will decrease the insulation properties of the clothing.
The inner layer should provide insulation and be able to "wick" moisture away from the skin to help keep it dry. Thermal underwear made from polyesters or polypropylene is suitable for this purpose. "Fishnet" underwear made from polypropylene wicks perspiration away from the skin and is significantly thicker than regular underwear. It also keeps the second layer away from the skin. The open mesh pattern enables the moisture to evaporate and be captured on the next layer away from the skin. The second layer covers the "holes" in the fishnet underwear which contributes to the insulation properties of the clothing.
The additional layers of clothing should provide adequate insulation for the weather conditions under which the work being done. They should also be easy to open or remove before you get too warm to prevent excessive sweating during strenuous activity. Outer jackets should have the means for closing off and opening the waist, neck and wrists to help control how much heat is retained or given off. Some jackets have netted pockets and vents around the trunk and under the arm pits (with zippers or Velcro fasteners) for added ventilation possibilities.
For work in wet conditions, the outer layer of clothing should be waterproof. If the work area cannot be shielded against wind, an easily removable windbreak garment should be used. Under extremely cold conditions, heated protective clothing should be made available if the work cannot be done on a warmer day.
Almost 50 percent of body heat is lost through the head. A wool knit cap or a liner under a hard hat can reduce excessive heat loss.
Clothing should be kept clean since dirt fills air cells in fibres of clothing and destroys its insulating ability.
What factors modify our response to cold?
A cold environment challenges the worker in three ways: by air temperature, air movement (wind speed), and humidity (wetness). In order to work safely, these challenges have to be counterbalanced by proper insulation (layered protective clothing), by physical activity and by controlled exposure to cold (work/rest schedule).
Air Temperature: Air temperature is measured by an ordinary thermometer in degrees Celsius (°C) or degrees Fahrenheit (°F).
Wind Speed: Different types of commercially-available anemometers are used to measure wind speed or air movement. These are calibrated in meters per second (m/s), kilometers per hour (km/h) or miles per hour (mph). Air movement is usually measured in m/s while wind speed is usually measured in km/h or mph. The following is a suggested guide for estimating wind speed if accurate information is not available:
8 km/h (5 mph): light flag moves,
16 km/h (10 mph): light flag fully extended,
24 km/h (15 mph): raises newspaper sheet,
32 km/h (20 mph): causes blowing and drifting snow.
Humidity (wetness): Water conducts heat away from the body 25 x faster then dry air.
Physical Activity: The production of body heat by physical activity (metabolic rate) is difficult to measure. However, tables are available in literature showing metabolic rates for a variety of activities. Metabolic heat production is measured in kilo calories (kcal) per hour. One kilocalorie is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by 1°C.
Work/rest schedule: Check Table 2 in this document, the "work warm-up schedule," as developed by the Saskatchewan Department of Labour. This work schedule has been adopted by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) as Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) for cold stress.
Protective clothing: Check section on "What should I know about personal protective equipment (PPE) for working in the cold?"
For information on the general effects of working in the cold as well as how the body adapts to cold, please see "Cold Environments - General"
For information on the health effects and first aid for cold exposures, please see "Cold Environments - Health Effects and First Aid"
What is the wind-chill temperature?
At any temperature, you feel colder as the wind speed increases. The combined effect of cold air and wind speed is expressed as "equivalent chill temperature" (ECT) or simply "wind chill" temperature in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit. It is essentially the air temperature that would feel the same on exposed human flesh as the given combination of air temperature and wind speed. It can be used as a general guideline for deciding clothing requirements and the possible health effects of cold.
In some parts of Canada the term "wind chill factor" is used. This is a measurement of a heat loss rate caused by exposure to wind and it is expressed as the rate of energy loss per unit area of exposed skin per second (e.g., joules/[second-metre2] or watts/metre2, W/m2).
Are there regulated exposure limits for working in cold environments?
In Canada, there are no maximum exposure limits for cold working environments. The "work warm-up schedule" developed by the Saskatchewan Department of Labour has been adopted by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) as Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) for cold stress.
What can be done to help prevent the adverse effects of cold?
For continuous work in temperatures below the freezing point, heated warming shelters such as tents, cabins or rest rooms should be available. The work should be paced to avoid excessive sweating. If such work is necessary, proper rest periods in a warm area should be allowed and employees should change into dry clothes. New employees should be given enough time to get acclimatized to cold and protective clothing before assuming a full work load.
The risk of cold injury can be minimized by proper equipment design, safe work practices and appropriate clothing. The following is a summary of actions including some from recommendations from the ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists).
Equipment Design
For work below the freezing point, metal handles and bars should be covered by thermal insulating material. Also, machines and tools should be designed so that they can be operated without having to remove mittens or gloves.
Surveillance and Monitoring
Every workplace where the temperature may fall below 16°C should be equipped with a suitable thermometer to monitor any further temperature changes. For colder workplaces with temperatures below the freezing point, the temperature should be monitored at least every 4 hours. For indoor workplaces, whenever the rate of air movement exceeds 2 meters per second (5 miles per hour) it should be recorded every 4 hours. In outdoor workplaces with air temperature below the freezing point, both air temperature and wind speed should be recorded.
Emergency Procedures
Procedures for providing first aid and obtaining medical care should be clearly outlined. For each shift, at least one trained person should be assigned the responsibility of attending to emergencies.
Education
Workers and supervisors involved with work in cold environments should be informed about symptoms of adverse effect exposure to cold, proper clothing habits, safe work practices, physical fitness requirements for work in cold, and emergency procedures in case of cold injury. While working in cold, a buddy system should be used. Look out for one another and be alert for the symptoms of hypothermia.
What should I know about personal protective equipment (PPE) for working in the cold?
Clothing
Protective clothing is needed for work at or below 4°C. Clothing should be selected to suit the temperature, weather conditions (e.g., wind speed, rain), the level and duration of activity, and job design. These factors are important to consider so that you can regulate the amount of heat and perspiration you generate while working. If the work pace is too fast or if the type and amount of clothing are not properly selected, excessive sweating may occur. The clothing next to body will become wet and the insulation value of the clothing will decrease dramatically. This increases the risk for cold injuries.
Clothing should be worn in multiple layers which provide better protection than a single thick garment. The air between layers of clothing provides better insulation than the clothing itself. Having several layers also gives you the option to open or remove a layer before you get too warm and start sweating or to add a layer when you take a break. It also allows you to accommodate changing temperatures and weather conditions. Successive outer layers should be larger than the inner layer, otherwise the outermost layer will compress the inner layers and will decrease the insulation properties of the clothing.
The inner layer should provide insulation and be able to "wick" moisture away from the skin to help keep it dry. Thermal underwear made from polyesters or polypropylene is suitable for this purpose. "Fishnet" underwear made from polypropylene wicks perspiration away from the skin and is significantly thicker than regular underwear. It also keeps the second layer away from the skin. The open mesh pattern enables the moisture to evaporate and be captured on the next layer away from the skin. The second layer covers the "holes" in the fishnet underwear which contributes to the insulation properties of the clothing.
The additional layers of clothing should provide adequate insulation for the weather conditions under which the work being done. They should also be easy to open or remove before you get too warm to prevent excessive sweating during strenuous activity. Outer jackets should have the means for closing off and opening the waist, neck and wrists to help control how much heat is retained or given off. Some jackets have netted pockets and vents around the trunk and under the arm pits (with zippers or Velcro fasteners) for added ventilation possibilities.
For work in wet conditions, the outer layer of clothing should be waterproof. If the work area cannot be shielded against wind, an easily removable windbreak garment should be used. Under extremely cold conditions, heated protective clothing should be made available if the work cannot be done on a warmer day.
Almost 50 percent of body heat is lost through the head. A wool knit cap or a liner under a hard hat can reduce excessive heat loss.
Clothing should be kept clean since dirt fills air cells in fibres of clothing and destroys its insulating ability.
Clothing must be dry. Moisture should be kept off clothes by removing snow prior to entering heated shelters. While the worker is resting in a heated area, perspiration should be allowed to escape by opening the neck, waist, sleeves and ankle fasteners or by removing outerwear. If the rest area is warm enough it is preferable to take off the outer layer(s) so that the perspiration can evaporate from the clothing.
If fine manual dexterity is not required, gloves should be used below 4°C for light work and below -7°C for moderate work. For work below -17°C, mittens should be used.
Footwear
Felt-lined, rubber bottomed, leather-topped boots with removable felt insoles are best suited for heavy work in cold since leather is porous, allowing the boots to "breathe" and let perspiration evaporate. Leather boots can be "waterproofed" with some products that do not block the pores in the leather. However, if work involves standing in water or slush (e.g., fire fighting, farming), the waterproof boots must be worn. While these protect the feet from getting wet from cold water in the work environment, they also prevent the perspiration to escape. The insulating materials and socks will become wet more quickly than when wearing leather boots and increase the risk for frostbite.
Foot Comfort and Safety at Work has some general information how to select footwear. (Also, when trying on boots before purchase, wear the same type of sock that you would wear at work to ensure a proper fit.)
Socks
You may prefer to wear one pair of thick, bulky socks or two pairs - one inner sock of silk, nylon, or thin wool and a slightly larger, thick outer sock. Liner socks made from polypropylene will help keep feet dry and warmer by wicking sweat away from the skin. However, as the outer sock becomes damper, its insulation properties decrease. If work conditions permit, have extra socks available so you can dry your feet and change socks during the day. If two pairs of socks are worn, the outer sock should be a larger size so that the inner sock is not compressed.
Always wear the right thickness of socks for your boots. If they are too thick, the boots will be "tight," and the socks will loose much of their insulating properties when they are compressed inside the boot. The foot would also be "squeezed" which would slow the blood flow to the feet and increase the risk for cold injuries. If the socks are too thin, the boots will fit loosely and may lead to blisters.
Face and Eye Protection
In extremely cold conditions, where face protection is used, eye protection must be separated from the nose and mouth to prevent exhaled moisture from fogging and frosting eye shields or glasses. Select protective eye wear that is appropriate for the work you are doing, and for protection against ultraviolet light from the sun, glare from the snow, blowing snow/ice crystals, and high winds at cold temperatures.
What are some additional prevention tips?
To prevent excessive sweating while working, remove clothing in the following order:
- mittens or gloves (unless you need protection from snow or ice),
- headgear and scarf,
- then open the jacket at the waist and wrists, and
- remove layers of clothing.
As you cool down, follow the reverse order of the above steps.
Prevent contact of bare skin with cold surfaces (especially metallic) below -7°C as well as avoiding skin contact when handling evaporative liquids (gasoline, alcohol, cleaning fluids) below 4°C. Sitting or standing still for prolonged periods should also be avoided.
Balanced meals and adequate liquid intake are essential to maintain body heat and prevent dehydration. Eat properly and frequently. Working in the cold requires more energy than in warm weather because the body is working to keep the body warm. It requires more effort to work when wearing bulky clothing and winter boots especially when walking through snow.
Drink fluids often especially when doing strenuous work. For warming purposes, hot non-alcoholic beverages or soup are suggested. Caffeinated drinks such as coffee should be limited because it increases urine production and contributes to dehydration. Caffeine also increases the blood flow at the skin surface which can increase the loss of body heat.
Alcohol should not be consumed as it causes expansion of blood vessels in the skin (cutaneous vasodilation) and impairs the body's ability to regulate temperature (it affects shivering that can increase your body temperature) . These effects cause the body to lose heat and thus increase the risk of hypothermia.
In refrigerated rooms, the air speed should not exceed 1 meter per second. If workers are simultaneously exposed to vibration and/or toxic substances, reduced limits for cold exposure may be necessary.
If you work at the computer in a cold work environment, protect your mouse hand using a mouse hand warmer blanket.
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